Hindu\Vedic Philosophy_1

What is Philosophy?

Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, truth, beauty, justice, validity, mind, and language. It is distinguished from other ways of addressing these questions by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on reasoned argument.

The word philosophy is derived from Ancient Greek “philos” means beloved or lover or friend and “Sophia” means wisdom. Thus in Greek philosophy means ‘love of wisdom’ or ‘search for truth’ or ‘quest for knowledge’. Philosophy is the love, study and pursuit of wisdom, knowledge and truth. The word philosophy has been clarified as ‘drisyant anne yeti dharsnam’ in Upanishad. The Sanskrit word ‘dris’ means to see.

We know that man is a curious creature by nature. He is always thirst of gaining new things.  He wants to search all knowledge about the universe to know how the universe has been created who is the creator of this universe. The area of his search has no limitation. What is soul and the supernatural power, who created the world? The discipline which is related to this endless inquiry is called philosophy. It is a knowledge or reliable knowledge which is generally gained by seeing. So is called dris. The philosophical questions begin with the experience of human beings of external world and these questions try to investigate ultimate reality. These questions have no limitation as each finding gives birth to the new question. It is the man’s endeavor to explain total universe around him. In this way Philosophy is a discipline that is related to the search pf eternal or everlasting truth. It is the systematic inquiry of universe.

Philosophy is an approach of open-mindedness, skepticism and inquisitiveness. It is an attitude and way of seeing things. It knows better, not because it ‘knows more things’, but because it ‘knows ‘them differently. Both are intellectual and practical since wisdom about what is going on includes practical wisdom about how to live well focused on the things that really matter. It doesn’t compete with specialized sciences. It is an outlook or ‘method’ which animates, welcomes, and unifies all types of inquiry and search for evidence. Various thinkers have defined philosophy in different ways. Such as:-

Socrates says, “Those who are lover of vision of truth are philosophers.”

According to Aristotle “Philosophy is the science which investigates the nature being as it is in itself.”

Plato states that “Philosophy aims at knowledge of eternal nature of things. He who has a taste for every sort of knowledge and who is curious to learn and is never satisfied may justly be termed as philosopher.”

According to B. Russell “Philosophy is a linkage between theology and science.”

Another thinker Herbert Spencer thinks “Philosophy is the synthesis of science or a universal science.”

In nutshell, we can say that philosophy is a systematic view of all things and is a theory of ultimate and absolute reality. It is a system of values. Thus, Philosophy is putting the nature of the universe, including meaning, people and relationships into an understandable or explained perspective. Philosophy can have various meanings such as reality, theories, wisdom, meaning of life, life perspectives and nature of being human.

Functions of philosophy

There are various functions of philosophy which are given below:-

Perspective function:-

This function is sometimes called the normative function. Philosophy presents not only the truth, but it also tells the human beings about their duties. It develops the value system which should be followed by human beings. It establishes ideals standard moral behavior, social duties etc. it gives the knowledge of what is true and what is false, right or wrong about the activities which are existing in the world. Philosophers think that the world where human beings stay is not only the physical world but so many realities such as moral social relationships and art depends in it. We can’t imagine life without it. Scientists study about the facts but philosophy evaluates those facts. Philosophy tells us about the truth, god, nature, good and bad human qualities, etc. and recommend to do the things considering the scientific thinking and existing situation as well.

Speculative function:-

 Philosophy uses logic for the function of speculation which is related to the prediction of knowledge and also to assist the systematic investigation of knowledge. Speculation or guessing is the beginning of the philosophy. Philosophers speculate about the things or elements of universe to define truthfully. Such speculation can be done by thinking and doing efforts. Men try to think about universe, truth, god, knowledge about other things for this. We can find hermits or monks had done meditation to find the truth in eastern.

Analytical Function:-

Sometimes this function is called function of criticism of philosophy. It analyzes about truth or untruth. Philosophy analyzes truth into positive and negative category as well as analyses the strength and weakness of human conduct.

  Philosophy also deals with the relationship between existing knowledge. It tries to find out true and false, good and bad, soul and god, god and goodness, knowledge and ignorance etc. on the basis of analyzing, giving logic, finding reality and scientific principles, for instance what is soul or god? What is human mind and human behaviour? And what is the meaning of reason, motivation, compound, interest etc of educational concept.

In brief, the main functions of philosophy can be summarized in the following:-

1.      Discovers knowledge.

2.      Discovers and presents the explanation of the universe in terms of some or more unifying principles.

3.      Presents a guide to conduct.

4.      Evaluates and interprets the assumption and findings of science.

Discuss about the Branches of Philosophy

To give an exhaustive list of the main branches of philosophy is difficult task as there have been various equally acceptable divisions at different times and the divisions are often relative to the concerns of a particular period. However, the following branches are usually accepted as the main areas of study.

Metaphysics: Theory of reality:-

This theory was developed after the development of physics when it can not deal many problems or solve them. Physics dealt only with external forms or forms of existence, so to address real essence of things, Metaphysics came into existence. Physics addressed only the ends not the means. Therefore to give ends philosopher Aristotle propounded this theory.

It is concerned with explaining, as rationally and as comprehensively as possible the nature of reality. It deals with the following Metaphysical questions such as what is reality. What is truth or untruth? Who is the creator of the universe and how was it created? Is the world one or many? Etc.

It also investigates the nature of being and the world. It explores questions such as what does it mean to exist? What is human kind’s place in the scheme of things? Etc. Such type of metaphysical questions is at the heart of educational philosophy.

Metaphysics is concerned with the search of ultimate truth which doesn’t care the utility of this truth. It only investigates the fundamental elements and process of this universe.

In nutshell, Metaphysics is the study of the nature of man, nature of the universe, nature of truth, nature of existence. Its subject matter includes self, the world and the god. Metaphysics means beyond the nature. So it studies nature of truth and existence.

Epistemology: Theory of knowledge.

It is also known as theory of knowledge. It is concerned with the nature and the scope of knowledge and whether knowledge is possible. It investigates the different ways of acquiring knowledge, methods of verifying knowledge, for distinguishing truth and untruth. It also tells which methods should be employed in the search of the truth. The main question of epistemology is how to acquire the knowledge about ultimate reality. There are various kinds of Epistemology:-

a. Revealed knowledge

 Revealed knowledge believes on the basis of religious faith or in believing god. It does not believe on experiments or observation. Words of god, command, threatening, and guidelines given by the gods are put under this category. These kind of knowledge are in the form of religious such as The Gita, Vedas, The Kuran, The Bible, Tripitak etc.

Revealed knowledge is in part the kind of knowledge that god discloses to man.

b. Authoritative  knowledge

  It is also called the knowledge of authoritative knowledge on the basis of different achievements, experiments and facts given by the experts. This knowledge is accepted since it comes from experts. The knowledge is in fact accepted by finding the facts in the authentic books, for instance, Dictionary, Encyclopaedia etc.

c. Intuitive knowledge

 Knowledge is combination of man’s thought and consciousness but intuitive knowledge more than that. Knowledge is acquired from intuition. It can be achieved but we can’t say how it is possible.

 Nietsche says, “The most intelligent of all kinds of intelligence is intuitive knowledge”.

  According to Bruner, “It is the intellectual technique of arriving at plausible but tentative formulations without going through the analytic steps by which such formulations would be found to be valid or invalid conclusion”.

Axiology: Theory of value

Generally, Axiology means the study of values. The main function of Axiology is the classification of truth investigated by metaphysics in useful and harmful category.

It investigates the knowledge related to human welfare among the all eternal truths. It also determines the ideals, aims and duties of human life which prepares a code of conduct for them. It highlights the fact that the teacher has an interest not only in quantity of knowledge which studies acquire but also in the quantity of knowledge knowledge which students acquire but also in the quality pf life that becomes possible because of knowledge. It can be categoreized into three sub-topics which are given below:-

Logic: - It is the science of reasoning which deals with patterns of thinking that leads from true premises to true conclusion .originally developed in ancient Greece beginning in the late 19^th century. Today it has two broad subjects’ mathematical logic and philosophical logic. It is the science of sciences. The knowledge of logic helps us in avoiding error and arriving at correct generalization in every field of knowledge. It is science of truth.

Ethics:- It is the science of character or value of knowledge. It deals with question of how person ought to act or if such answers are answerable. It also associated with the idea of morality. It is the science of human conduct. Human beings habits and behaviors are related with the permanent. It also deals with peculiarities of human character. It is the science of goodness. Without ethics education is usually blind.

Aesthetics: - It is the science of beauty. Thus it deals with the beauty, art, enjoyment, sensory-emotional values, perception and matters of taste and sentiments.

Show the relationship between education and philosophy?

 The English word education is derived from Latin word ‘Educare’ means to bring up, to develop or gaining knowledge. But Philosophy means love of knowledge. Thus education is gaining of knowledge while philosophy is love of knowledge. Therefore it is love of knowledge and gaining of knowledge.

 The philosophy of education is the study of the purpose, process, nature and ideals of education. This can be within the context of education as a societal institution or more broadly as the process of human existential growth .i. e. how it is that our understanding of the world is continually transformed.

Educational philosophy consists of what you believe about education –the set of principles that guides your profession action. Every teacher has a philosophy of education- a set of beliefs about how human beings learn and grow and what one should learn in order to live the good life. Your behavior as a teacher is strongly connected to your personal beliefs and your belief about teaching and learning, studies, knowledge.

Both are interrelated. Philosophy is the general principle of education whereas education is the practical aspect of philosophy. Philosophy postulates the theories whereas the education will deliver the postulated theories to humans. Educational doctrines are an application of philosophical ideas. Every philosophical life depends on certain beliefs. If the belief is useful for life it should have educational importance. Educational principles are the practical use of philosophical ideas.

There are no educational facts in philosophy. Philosophy searches for the importance of education in life. Like philosophy, education is also based on certain philosophy. So both education and philosophy are related with life. Education and philosophy are two sides of a coin. If all the facts are combined together, two different things can be found.

a.       Education world process

b.       Education temporal process

Philosophy will guide and assist them.

Philosophy and education are complimentary to each other. Without philosophy education is useless and without education philosophy is futile. The philosophy is thought or plan side and education is application or practical side. Education is the conscious dynamic process which needs proper guidance and supervision. It cannot achieve its goal of life and also provides suitable and effective guidance for educational achievement.

According to Sir John Adams, “Education is the dynamic side of philosophy. It is the active aspect of philosophical belief, the practical means of realizing ideas of life.”

Education can’t be successful process without the development and achievement. Thus we can say Education and philosophy are two sides of coin as the relation between them is like that of nail and flesh. There is close relationship between them as given below:

Philosophy

Education

1.      It is love of knowledge. 2.      It discovers knowledge. 3.      It produces belief. 4.      It is the general principle of education. 5.      It postulates theories. 6.      It explains the universe. 7.      It presents a guide to conduct. 8.      Shows problems of man, things and society. 9.      Speculates about everything and finds out reality. 10.  Uses the method of reflective thinking. 11.  Explains everything in terms pf priori principles. 12.  It deals with truth, goodness and beauty.

1. It is love of knowledge. 2. It discovers knowledge. 3. It produces belief. 4. It is the general principle of education. 5. It postulates theories. 6. It explains the universe. 7. It presents a guide to conduct. 8. Shows problems of man, things and society. 9. Speculates about everything and finds out reality. 10. Uses the method of reflective thinking. 11. Explains everything in terms pf priori principles. 12. It deals with truth, goodness and beauty

Q. Why does a teacher need Philosophy?

 Philosophy is like pure crystal clear water which mirrors the personality of human being. Philosophy helps everybody to discover themselves and realize the truth. It is the component which helps the person to think or know about truth, goodness and beauty. It enables person to walk on the right path. So, one doesn’t find or see mistakes or faults in anybody. Therefore, a teacher must be concerned with philosophy of education. Only a true philosopher may give a practical shape of education to the students. Thus how she or he behaves the students and how she /he communicates depends very much on how she or he defines the students. Without a philosophy a teacher won’t be able to impart knowledge clearly.

 Without philosophy the curriculum will not have any sense of purpose in its design. Science supplies the means, philosophy supplies the ends. It provides a comprehensive and total view of the educational situation. A teacher provides information and knowledge to the students but his or her personal stamp is always in the form a philosophy of life. What the great teachers have given to the world is philosophy not information.

Philosophy is a theory of education. It is the theory of education in its most general phases. S/he gets theory teaching from the philosophy of education.

“Philosophy is to be studied not for the sake of any definite answers to the questions but rather for the sake of questions themselves: because the questions enlarge our conception of what is possible , enrich our intellectual imagination and diminish the dogmatic assurance which closes the mind against speculation”, says Bertarad Russell.

Buddhist Philosophy of Education

                                                              What is Buddhism?

Buddhism, in a single, is a middle way philosophy based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautam founder of Buddhism. It doesn’t have recognition, with God, soul, spiritualism, ritualism and rebirth. The next feature of Buddhist philosophy is transistor. Buddhism is also known as Non-soulisim (Anatamabad) since it does not regard the soul as the central point. In fact, suffering is inevitable part of out life and is always present in human being. Rationality is necessary to get rid of the sufferings.

            Nothing is eternal and nothing is permanent as well as everlasting because the things in the world are dynamic. Everything needs to be destroyed one day. One should not leave action on the belief of God. Morality and immorality depend on the conduct of a person. A man is responsible himself towards the morality and immorality activities. He gets result according to his own choice of path. A man can get education on the basis of supreme truths. Ignorance, thirst and indulgence are the causes of sufferings. A literate person is far from these sufferings. Thus the real knowledge is possible in accordance with the four noble truths.

            Buddhism philosophy is not spiritual and materialistic. To get perfect spiritual peace, a person needs help of materialist means, environment and other people. Spiritual can not be achieved through giving pain to the body and without eating anything. Spiritual can achieved through being healthy and eating food. Good thought can not enter into the evil mind. Such kind of mind aimlessly wanders like that of unconscious animals.

            One can walk on the right path by accepting and removing own mistakes. No one can go ahead on the right way by criticizing other people. One can bring improvement in himself/herself being friendly and kind. Buddhism is a philosophy or religion based upon the teachings of Siddharth Gautam(566-486 B.C.)

Life Sketch of Lord Gautam Buddha

Lord Gautam Buddha is the founder of Buddhism. He was born in 563 B.C. at Lumbini, of Kapilvastu Nagar which was the kingdom of Nepal destined for a privileged life. According to legend, before his birth Gautam Buddha had visited his mother during a dream, taking the form of a white elephant. So during his birth celebrations, a seer announced that this baby would either become a great king or a great holy man.

            During the first 16 years if his life, Gautam received an education in policy of state administration and also in military science. At the age of 16, his father arranged his marriage. Therefore he was married to a girl named Yashodhara. After marriage he looked after the state affairs for the three years.

            Although his father ensured that he was provided everything he could want or need, he was troubled and dissatisfied. Therefore, at the age of 29 he was taken on four subsequent visits outside of the palace and the various places in the city in the chariot. During his visits to various places, he came across an old crippled man, a sick man, and a dead body. These three sights created disinterestedness in him for the world. Therefore, he left his family and went to some spiritual guides for seeking deliverance from birth, death, and diseases. Finally he got enlightened after having long mediation under Bodhi tree. Then he set journeys with his disciples to various parts of the world preaching his sermons.

Passing sights

The passing sights lead Siddhartha to recognize the reality of death and suffering and the cyclical nature of human existence (sansara). Therefore, he left the palace, abandoned his inheritance and became a wandering monk seeking a solution to an end of suffering.

            He began with the Yogic path although he reached high levels of meditative consciousness, he was not satisfied. So he abandoned painless and realized power of the middle way; which is an important idea in Buddhist thought and practice. To seek moderation and avoid the extremes of self indulgence (Aaskyti) he left everything. At  the age of 35 he was enlightened, awakening to the true nature of reality which is Nirvana(Absolute Truth) and finally he became the Buddha.

            “Buddha” derived from the ancient Indian language of Pali and Sanskrit means “one who has awakened”.  It is derived from the verbal root “budh” meaning “to awaken” or to be enlightened”, and to “to comprehend”. The Buddha taught that the nature of reality was impermanent and interconnected. We suffer in life because of our desire to passing things.

            Liberation from suffering may come by training the mind and acting according to the laws of Karma(cause and effect) i.e. with right action, good things will come to you.

Four Noble Truth or The Four Arya Satya

Buddha’s first sermon at Benares contained contained the essence of his message. He taught there the “Four Noble/ supreme Truths”.

1. Life is suffering(dukkha)

            The word is full of miseries. Suffering is everywhere sickness and death are what they are; human life is impermanent and transient. The pain associated with these and other parts of life is due to a subjective dislocation, an attitude that takes things the wrong way that wants thins to be different. Dukkha has the connotation of losing one’s center or balance, like a bone that has come out of joint. Dukkha is the suffering of existence that is not what it should be, that is out of thump, i.e. missing the point.

Human sufferings

Suffering is the ultimate truth of humans that can’t be avoided. The sufferings are:-  birth, sickness, old age, and obviously death. If we want something from others, seek for love. We want to be something and want to get something in future. Pain, grief, sorrow, despair, love, family, relation etc. are also sufferings.

            Sickness and death are what they are, human life, human life is impermanent and transient. But the pain associated with these and other parts of life is due to a subjective dislocation an attitude that takes things the wrong way that wants things to be different. Body, perception, feeling, emotions and ideas or thoughts are human sufferings.

2. There are causes of suffering self-centered carving)

            There is a cause for a person’s miseries which is attachment or misplaced desire(tanha) rooted in ignorance. The cause of suffering is the need to refer all things to ourselves. According to Buddha there are five skandhas or types of grasping that give us trouble. They are:-

1. The grasping of body or concern over this body that I call mine, ‘my body’.
2. Perception or concerns with my way of seeing things, my perspective, my view.
3. The grasping of feeling, whereby I am concerned with my feelings and subjective states- I call them mine and I am attached to them.
4. Grasping of emotions or impulses that I’m attached to.
5. Grasping ideas or thoughts abut which I am defensive, which I claim to be my own.

According to Buddha, the body, perception, feeling, impulses and thoughts are real indeed. There are constantly changing conditions of existence. What is not real is the linking of these conditions to the notion of a “self”. The illusion of a ego or self only appears or “emerges” in an attitude of self-concern and selfish striving. The self is a name that we give to the point of intersection of all inwardly directed carving; we wish to appropriate the world for ourselves, to suck everything into the ego, to draw things into ourselves what we call the ego or the self or the spiritual substance or ‘soul’ is rally the creation and the by product of a selfish and self-referential attitude.

3. Sufferings can be removed

            In order to bring an end of suffering, one must bring an end to self-centered carving(desire). If each desire is like a draft, it leads inward towards a point called self. Thus one must stop or even reverse this flow. One must refer all things to oneself. One must always try to overcome subjective needs interpretations in the light of subjective needs and desires. One must always see the things as they are, not simply as they are for us. One must reverse the flow so that one no longer draws things inward, but rather lets the absolute within swell up and flow outward in universal compassions is trapped. If the drawing ceases the compassion is allowed to emerge.

            The worldly miseries may be removed which is Nirvana i.e. the possibility of liberation exists for everyone.

4. There are eight-fold path for removing sufferings

            Right views, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration are devices for removing the sufferings and pain.

Eightfold way

There are no simple explanations of the eightfold way, but some brief comments might

be of help:-

a. Right views:-

            Though Buddha had little interest in complicated doctrines or theologies; some beliefs are necessary. Generally, right belief is acceptance of the four Noble Truths and to remember the four Arya Satya is necessary for Nirvana.

b. Right intention:-

            We must dedicate ourself wholeheartedly to overcoming the dislocation of self-centered carving. One must want this emancipation more than anything else. One must want this let his heart wander from this path.

c. Right speech

            We must guard over his speech and avoid lies as well as dishonesty, cultivate honesty and truthfulness. We have to refrain from unkind speech and practice speech that is kind and benevolent.

d. Right action

            One must examine his or her behaviour and determine whether each action is selfish or self-less. One must practice other-centered rather than self-centered actions. Moreover, one must obey such perceptions as Don’t kill, Don’t be unchaste. Don’t intoxicants, Don’t lie and steal.

d. Right livelihood

One must not engage in occupation that opposes or distracts one form the path. For instance, since all life is sacred, one may not become a butcher etc.

e. Right effort

            One must purse the path with the right exertion on the other hand; one must strive diligently in order to practice the cultivation of virtues and the curving of vices. On the other hand, one must not be “over-zealous” and run the risk of burning oneself out and abandoning the way altogether. One should make an effort to entertain good thoughts and to avoid bad thoughts.

f. Right mindfulness

            One must clear up his mind and clean “the dust off of the mirror. One must free his mind from self-centered thoughts; thoughts that are separate and replace them with thoughts that mind together, that see all beings together. One must make his concentration objectives rather than subjective. One must think in terms of others as well as oneself. One needs to concentrate to remember the known things properly.

g. Right concentration

            Right concentration is similar to raja yoga in

Hinduism. Through self-discipline and rigorous meditation, one gradually overcomes self-centered ways of thinking. In the advanced stages, one learns to concentrate all of one’s consciousness on a candle. By concentrating all other thoughts and objects are extinguished. Thus, one must extinguished consciousness of even of this one object.

            In this way extinguishes the last flame of grasping consciousness. This is readiness for nirvana. Nirvana is the complete bliss of ‘blowing out the candle’ of the self, extinguishing all thoughts of the self.

Objectives of education

For attaining salvation pragya, sheel and Samadhi have been considered necessary. The achievement of salvation is possible only through eight fold noble path. It is the main objective of Buddhist education to expand and achieve these three domains.

Role of the Teacher

Like the ancient Hindu system, the Buddhist system also insisted upon the duty of the students to serve his teacher by all means. The teacher in both the system taught only as many students as he should cope with.

In Buddhist education system, the role of the teacher is considered to be very important. Through the help of teacher, students can get deliverance from sufferings and pain and to conceive the eight fold noble path we need the guide of the teacher without the hell pod the teacher no students will be able to conceive those eight fold path. Knowledge can be acquired only through the help of teacher. Buddhism is opposed to the idea of omnipotent. So the teacher should not pretend to be omniscient. Omnipotence is possible only through the continuous process. Nirvana means extinction. The wall is built up through thirst of combination of science and materialistic element. Thus the teacher is abstract form of this concept.

Curriculum

The Buddhist system developed a curriculum around Buddhist religion. However, gradually it also included comparative study of Hinduism and Jainism. The curriculum which initially included theology, philosophy and logic was gradually extended to Sanskrit literature, astronomy, astrology medicine, law, political science, administration music and technical education concerning so many trades. Therefore, the curriculum of the Buddhist Universities was almost as much versatile and varied as any of the modern university. Hence, the institution used to attract students not only from all parts of India but also from distant countries such as Korea, China and Tibet.

Contribution

1. Federated institutions:-

Most of the Buddhist institutions were large units including thousands of students and a number of teachers. So the vihar or the Buddhist monastery was federated educational institutional on the pattern of modern university. While Braminical culture depends upon the system of individual schools and ideals succession of teachers and disciples the Buddhist culture was the product of the confederation of such schools into larger monastic institutions comparing a number of teachers and students.

2. opposed to the cast system:-

The Buddhist system of education of education insisted that the students may be admitted on his personal merits and not on the basis of family or caste. The Buddhist monks and nuns come from the all castes.

3. Medium of instruction:-

Pali and prakriti and other popular languages were the medium of instruction. The modern concept primary education in the mother tongue is the out come of Buddhist philosophy.

4. Aim of education

The aim of education according to Buddhist education was to influence the younger section of society according to the Buddhist thoughts. To fulfill this primary aim, its secondary aim was to train monks and nuns for the purpose. Therefore, the system has missionary aim; however, the missionary schools admitted gradually even girls.

5. Curriculum

Basic foundations of Curriculum was tripitak(three boxes). On the basis of this   curriculum others were included as great vehicle which is the essence of Buddha and small vehicle that is supreme attainment. Buddha used the medium of instruction through mother tongue for his sermon among the common people. The five skanda/ tatva such as earth, water, fire. Air and sky are also included in it. Pain as experience of happiness and miseries, name as naming, sansk(impression) i.e. favorable or unfavorable feeling as well as reason the knowledge of external  world through ‘self’ should be included for the training in the curriculum. We must be able to recognize them.

The Buddhist system developed a curriculum around Buddhist religion. However, gradually it also included comparative study of Hinduism and Jainism. The curriculum which initially included theology, philosophy and logic was gradually extended to Sanskrit literature, astronomy, astrology medicine, law, political science, administration music and technical education concerning so many trades. Therefore, the curriculum of the Buddhist Universities was almost as much versatile and varied as any of the modern university. Hence, the institution used to attract students not only from all parts of India but also from distant countries such as Korea, China and Tibet.

Value of Buddhist education

1. Popular education

Several improvements were made in education as in inclusive system. The Buddhist system of education laid the foundation of popular education. The vihars admitted students from all castes, classes and faces. Merit was the basis of admission. As the medium of education was the popular language, therefore, ordinary people were encouraged to send their sons to the educational institutions. The teachings and sermons of teachers were easily followed by the ordinary men and woman.

2. Buddhist system made wide based education

The Buddhist system made the education system wide by offering educational facilities to men and women of all caste and classes.

3. Evolution of medicine and surgery

The Buddhist system evolved medicine and surgery to a very high level.

4. Contribution of logic

The Buddhist scholars made an important contribution to Indian logic.

5. Professional education

The Buddhist system laid down foundations of professional education in Indian continent. It trained pathologists and the logicians besides experts in other trades. Takshila was famous for medical education. The course of medical education was extended to seven years after which practical examination was held for evaluation. Medical Botany was taught by first hand acquaintance with the medical plants. Physicians and general teachers of medicine like Nalanda, Kundaraggisma, Dhannatari etc. The disciples these famous teachers were renowned physicians in principal cities of India.

Educational Implication

Curriculum should be developed on the basis four noble truths and eight fold paths. The truth says that this world is full of miseries. If one realizes this truth from the very beginning, he will do nothing which makes cause any trouble in his life. So s/he will conduct his life as to ensure his physical, mental, moral and spiritual development. If the parents and the teachers are motivated by this first truth of Lord Buddha children will be developed in a desirable manner and our educational system will be transformed.

The second truth, that one’s ignorance is the cause of miseries. Due to ignorance one gets involved into various intricacies of the world. And in the third truth, if the person drives generated due to ignorance are destroyed, he will raise above all attachments and anger. This is how a person gets salvation. Through the fourth truth, the path towards destruction of worldly miseries. In this indication, Lord Buddha has presented eight devices which may help one in getting himself or herself free from worldly miseries.

Lord Buddha has prescribed a middle course to be followed. The middle course consists of eight devices and suggests only following these eight fold paths. The ultimate aim of education may be achieved because to obtain salvation is the ultimate end of the life. Salvation is the freedom from the cycle of birth and death. This may also be accepted as the ultimate purpose of education.

What is Buddha not?

A Buddha is not the creator of the universe, like “God” in the Christian-Judeo-Islamic sense. He is a man like us but an extra-ordinary person. There is no creator of the universe apart from the Karma(Actions) of sentient beings(beings with a mind like humans and animals). The Buddha is not omnipotent (all-powerful) like the Christian-Judeo-Islamic “God”. The state of a Buddha is not possible to reach (although it may take many lives and extensive effort). We can be Buddha if we try but can’t be Bishnu and Shiva. A Buddha is not hindered by ignorance, but is omniscient who knows everything and is a superman and enlightened person. A Buddha is not a passive being; he will use his wisdom to help other living beings when they are open to his advice.

            Conclusion

            In short, Buddhism has not recognition with god, soul, spiritualism and rebirth. It doesn’t regard the soul as the central point and carries the four great truths of Lord Buddha’s teachings. The world is full of miseries. There is cause for miseries and a man is himself responsible for his miseries. Miseries may be wiped out if followed eight fold paths. There are some devices for removing misery and help us to get deliverance, i.e. ultimate happiness. The ultimate goal of education; sacrifice one’s life for the welfare of others and to get salvation. A freedom from worldly suffering provides salvation. Thus good education should guide one to get their salvation. Soul is not eternal we are ourselves responsible for our own miseries that means we are the self consumer of our own woes. Education is to make the students depend upon their own efforts. The ultimate purpose of education is to sacrifice one’s life for the welfare of others. Freedom from worldly fabrication provides salvation; good education should guide one to his or her salvation. Therefore, the students should be trained to get salvation.

           

Learning and Teaching language Through Stories

It is impossible to imagine human life without language. It is the language, more accurately, the capacity to produce symbolic systems and then use those systems as a means of communication which gives us our humanness.  Without language there wouldn’t be any art, literature, law, conversation, culture, trade and society as we know it. Without language no one could share their feelings, pains and emotions. It is language which brings everyone together and comes in contact. This helps everyone to have good relationship with each other in the world. So by using and understanding language whether spoken or written, voice or internal is clearly important to anyone wishing to play a full active independent and cooperative part in the society and for the matter of living a life reasonably comfortable and happy. To cooperate and share ideas with people on the society language has become ingredient in the world.

Since the human civilization, English language has been as the most influential global language of communication in various countries around the world. So in the world of today, English has become almost as necessary as food and clothing. The countries where English language does not occupy an important role for intra-country function, it is usually considered a major foreign language. It is therefore taught and learnt in school and universities. Since most people use English language in order to communicate with the people belonging to different linguistic backgrounds in order to carry out real world communicative task in events like in conference, business transaction, seminars, workshop etc. So it is necessary to teach English language effectively in the classrooms.

There are various ways of teaching and learning English language to the learners such as through games, drama, role playing, using different cards etc. Besides these materials, the stories can be used as tools for teaching and learning in ELT classes. Telling and reading various stories in the ELT classes for the learners is the natural way of improving learner’s English skill. All learners from babies to grown up people learn better with reading or telling stories through stories even hard truths can be taught easily.

Highlighting the importance of stories as a tool for teaching and learning language to the learners Cameron, (2001) says that

Stories offer a whole imaginary world created by language that children can enter and enjoy, learning language as they go. Themes of stories begin from an over arching topic or idea that can branch out in many various directions, allowing children to pursue personal interests through the foreign language (p. 159).

By reading and telling stories at home and school both can entertain and educate the young learners effectively. A teacher can use stories the learners for teaching and learning language in the ELT classroom, which could be really fun and interesting. In fact, story telling and reading for the learners plays vital role to language teaching in the classroom. Learners always become curious of listening and telling the stories. They enjoy reading and telling stories in the class for their friends which can motivate the learners to learn language easily. Stories can create interest in them and make them to speak as well as builds up their confidence to express their ideas and views which leads towards learning language. So any kind of stories as folks, legends, Fable Tales, Fair Tales, etc are based on realities of life and experienced by learners themselves that can enable the learners to praise and respect the culture and the values of various groups and help them to understand the cultural norms and people of the society. These stories foster the transformative powers of education. Therefore, stories can lead to understanding, harmony and peaceful resolution of conflict.

For teaching and learning English language, stories form around the world can be used as an instrument in the ELT classroom. But teachers also need to use stories from their own as well as from the learners own culture and heritage so that they can understand the things easily and learn the language very easily. Using stories from different society and community or local or national ensures the learners to know the story. Through the familiarity of the stories reduce the stress and anxiety of the young learners in the classroom.

“Stories lower the younger learners’ affective filter allowing them to learn more easily”(karshen, 1982 as cited in United States and Tanzania, 2006, p. 14) This statement is rightly put forward as learners can learn and teach even difficult things easily through stories as they are curious to listen or read stories. The students like to know or read about the folk stories and myth, as their themes are always universal. Therefore, people everywhere appreciate from other parts or groups though they are not from listeners’ own culture. But people become delighted when stories are used from their own culture or from their own part of the world. It enhances understanding and self esteems among the learners. Stories are powerful teaching instrument to the students because of their potential to stimulate the imagination of them and engage them with materials to learn English language.  The stories give meaning to abstract concepts, aids, memory, makes learning fun and enjoyable as well a is time efficient.

The foreign language can be taught and learn easily using stories as an ingredient for learners in the classroom. The students can try to tell the stories using foreign language which they may know in their own mother tongue. For instance, when I was a child my neighbor uncle used to tell us folk Tales and Legend stories to entertain and create interest in us to learn something from it and pass on the knowledge of traditions, customs of their community. All the children around his inhabitant used to go to his house in the evening to listen stories. Sometimes he used to tell us the stories about heroic deeds. By listening stories the learners learnt lots of things from him such as to be moral, obedient and disciplined as well as honest towards elders and do things honestly. Listening stories from we used to retell and share stories using broken English in the classroom in order to improve and learn English language skills. Therefore, it is one of the beat way of teaching and learning of foreign language in the classroom for the learners. It is best technique of passing knowledge, customs, traditions and cultures from one generation to another throughout the world. But now days Because of advanced technologies and science, this kind of technique is going to die. However stories can be used important tool for teaching and learning various aspects of learning language for the learners.

Stories can help the learners feel positive about other countries and cultures, and can broaden their knowledge of the world. But teachers should always check for the values and attitudes that may not be appropriate in some cases so only the appropriate stories should be taken into the ELT classroom. For creating appropriate learning environment one should use the stories in the ELT classes which would be fruitful for the learners.

Stories as solutions to large classes and limited resources

In many countries, like in Nepal there is a shortage of teaching and learning resources. So, in such countries teachers can use stories as alternate tool to teach language and to introduce other different subjects like about HIV/AIDS problems or social problems. Stories can be used as a tool to manage large classes in the absence of books or materials. In order to improve learners English language skill, a teacher has to exploit various stories in the classroom. Thus, it is considered one best way of improving learners’ language skills. Young learners can be motivated and curious by telling or reading stories without book. The teacher, therefore, has to make an effort to continue the traitor of storytelling in the classroom and at home. In fact, the teacher can teach students foreign language telling and reading stories to them in the classroom. In such case it could enable the teacher to manage and control the class. Using stories as a tool, the teacher can improve foreign language skills of the young learners.

The teacher may choose any story either too short or long from any community or society brought into the classroom. But it is better if the story is such that gives students much fun and interest because amusement and interest in story act as a tonic for learners while learning a language. After reading and telling a story in the class, the learners have to be asked to retell in their own way or ask them to tell or bring the story that they know so that their English language skill can be improved.

The teacher has to collect all type of stories such as Fairy Tales, Folk Tales, fables etc as well as pictures, children’s books and small everyday objects or toys that can be used as an important instrument to teach the learners to involve them in improving their language. After reading or telling stories ask the students to tell the stories to improve learning language skills of learners. It can involve several learners in the activities and let them re-tell story turn by turn whatever they have understood in the classroom,. It can also improve the learners listening capacity. Therefore, Teachers should let the learners to speak or express their feelings and understanding about the stories in the classroom.

Teachers can various objects such as pencil, cups, spoons, forks toys to trigger stories. The teacher can divide the learners into different groups of four or six students. Then ask them to make the story and share with other groups in ELT classes. This technique can help the learners improving their language and builds up their confidence.

Even different types of pictures can be used for teaching and learning purpose in the classroom. In order to express their ideas and opinions a teacher using the pictures can help the learners in improving languages. If they ate given pictures, it builds confidence in them. Thus, this kind of materials should be used to improve learners’ language skill interestingly in the classroom. In this regard Cameron (2001) says,

“Listening to the teacher read or tell a story is a useful language learning activity at any age but using story books does not have to be about teaching reading. Listening to a story practices the ability to hold in mind the meaning of an extended piece of spoken discourse” (p.173).

Therefore a teacher can read or tell the simple stories in order to improve their listening skills. Small objects or pictures can be used in the class while telling stories which may create excitement among the students. Through these technique learners listening skills can be improved. The teacher can bring different audio cassettes or visuals for listening purpose for the learners that will help tem to increase their listening skill and language learning activity. If a story appeals to children, that will create an environment to hear it again and again for them.

In order to improve their language finds the stories which are simple and understandable for the learners. We have to let the learners read the story silently first time or read them aloud, then let them read loudly. It will be very effective for the learners’ improvement. Reading stories, simple questions can be asked to the learners for the learners’ language learning activity. By asking learners will be able to response towards question that will encourage them to use language and if they are confused while answering a teacher has to help them. The same story can be used for several times for the learners’ improvement. Discussion, role play creating short stories can be asked to the students to do in the class.

“Stories can enrich the learners learning experience and motivating as well as fun and can help develop positive attitude towards the foreign language learning. Listening to stories in class is a shared social experience” (Ellis & Brewsteras cited in The Reading Matrix vol. 6, April 2006).  A teacher may ask the learners to draw or paint a scene or character from the story and ask them to write few sentences from the story under the picture. Various speaking activities can be used for language learning purpose. Then let them to dictate the story that they created in the class. After the story made up, learners can be engaged in speaking activities with everyone reading or telling the same story in the class. Let the learners write or create their own stories using different pictures or objects.

Finally through oral retelling, learners can display their comprehension of a story. It can be useful technique in learning language. Thus reading, writing, listening and telling stories can help students to learn the foreign language easily. Stories are easy tools for teaching English language to the learners. In fact the story creates a world of characters who talk to each other and this discourse world presents opportunities for communicative activities. Hence story books are can be an effective tool for language learning and teaching purpose.

Reference

Cameron, L. (2001) Teaching language to Young Learner, Cambridge,

Cambridge University Press

English Teaching Forum, (2006). Volume 46, Number 2,

CONSTRUCTIVISM

Constructivism

A set of assumption about the nature of human learning that guides constructivist learning theories and teaching methods of education. Constructivism values developmentally appropriate teacher-supported learning that is initiated and directed by the students. In past centuries, constructivist ideas were not widely valued due to the perception that children’s play was seen as aimless and of little importance. Jean Piaget did not agree with these traditional views. He saw play as an important and necessary part of the student’s cognitive development and has provided scientific evidence for his views.

The background and development of constructivism

The constructivist movement has grown essentially from dissatisfaction with educational methods where rote memorization, regulation of facts and the division of knowledge into different subjects, led to a situation where learners were not necessarily able to apply what they have learned in real life. As early as 1929, Alfred North Whitehead argued that the way students learn many tings in school produces inert knowledge, that can be used to answer items on a school test but which is not available to the student when he or she is trying to solve a problem that requires that knowledge.

In traditional rationalist and behaviorist approaches, instruction is focused on covering an extensive subject area, reducing the amount of time for problem-solving and thinking beyond the facts, thus minimizing independent and autonomous leaning. It also encourages didactic lecture formats rather than active student learning. This fundamental problem led to the view point that instructors should only provide appropriate leaning situations that will allow students to develop their own knowledge, meaning and truth that will be useful in later life.

Providing a problem-solving context for actively engaging students in the thoughtful application of knowledge is an important variable in increasing learning. This educational viewpoint is called cognitive constructivism and was derived form the work of Piaget. It defines learning as an internal process of accommodation, assimilation and balance. Piaget saw learning as a process where an individual constructs his or her own meaning through cognitive processes. The main underlying assumption of constructivism is that individuals are actively involved right from birth in constructing personal meaning that is their own personal understanding from their experiences.

This is more concerned with the process of learning than with what is learned. Constructivism goes beyond the study of how the brain stores and retrieves information to examine the ways in which learners make meaning from experience. Rather the transmission of knowledge, learning is an internal process of interpretation; learners do not transfer knowledge from the external world into their memories, rather, they create interpretations of the world based upon their experiences and their interactions in the world. How someone constructs the world, his or her existing metaphors, is at least as powerful a factor influencing what is learned as any characteristic of that world. Most cognitive theories and the constructivist approaches that have grown out of these argue that learning should be durable, transferable and self-regulated. Mechanism need to be in place to promote the deeper internal processing required for such learning to occur.

Constructivists Theory

Formalization of the theory of constructivism is generally attributed to Jean Piaget, who articulated mechanisms by which knowledge is internalized by learners. He suggested that through processes of accommodation and assimilation, individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences. Assimilation occurs when individuals’ experiences are associated with their internal representation of the world. They assimilate the new experiences into an already existing framework.

Accommodation is the process of reframing one’s mental representation of the external world to fit new experiences. It was understood as the mechanism by which failure leads to learning. By accommodating this new experience and reframing our model of the way the world works, we learn from the experiences of failure. It is important to note that constructivism itself does not suggest one particular pedagogy.

Constructivism describes how learning should happen. The theory of constructivism suggests that learners construct knowledge, as a description of human cognition is often associated with pedagogic approaches that promote learning by doing.  The learners learn knowledge if they think it is applicable to life and so they give interpretation according to what they have understood.

Constructivist learning intervention

The learners learn as a unique individual. Social constructivism views each learner as a unique individual with unique needs and background. The learners are also seen as complex and multidimensional. Social constructivism not only acknowledges the uniqueness and complexity of the learner, but actually encourages, utilizes and rewards it as an integral part of the leaning process. The learners interpret the things according to their own knowledge and experiences. Various students have various knowledge to understand and construct the new meaning. The same meaning can interpreted in different way by different people. Every body perceives things differently; they are from different background so reality depends on person’s understanding.

The importance of the background and culture of the learner

Social constructivism encourages the learner to arrive at his or her own version of the truth, influences by his or her background, culture or embedded worldview. These symbols systems dictate how the learner learns and what is learned. It gives importance of the nature of the learner’s social interaction with knowledge members of the society. Without the social interaction with other more knowledgeable people, it is impossible to acquire social meaning of important symbol systems and learn how to utilize.

The responsibility of learning

Young children develop their thinking abilities by interacting with adults. Background knowledge plays an important role in learning process. Background and culture of the learners is important through the learning process, as background helps to shape the knowledge and truth that the learner creates, discovers and attains in the learning process. Social constructivism thus emphasizes the importance of the learner being actively involved in the learning process, unlike previous educational viewpoints where the responsibility rested with the instructor to teach and where the learners played a passive, receptive role.

Von Glasersfeld (1989) emphasizes that learners construct their own understanding and that they do not simply mirror and reflect what they read. Learners look for meaning and will try to find regularity and order in the events of the world even in the absence of full or complete information.

The motivation for learning

Another crucial assumption regarding the nature of the learner concerns the level and source of motivation for learning. According to Von Glasersfeld sustaining motivation to learn is strongly dependent on the leaner’s confidence in his or her potential for learning. These feelings of competence and belief and belief in potential to solve new problems are derived from first-hand experience of mastery of problems in the past and are much more powerful than any external acknowledgement and motivation. By experiencing the successful completion of challenging tasks, learners gain confidence and motivation to embark that are more complex on challenges.

The role of the instructor

 The role of the instructors is as facilitators in constructivism. Instructors have to adapt the role of facilitators and not the teachers. Facilitators always remain at the back of the learners in the class and encourage them to reach at certain conclusion as well as creates environment.

Difference between facilitator and teacher

Facilitator	Teacher
A facilitator asks the learners. A facilitator supports from the back. Provides guidelines and creates the Environment for the learner to arrive at his or her own conclusions. A facilitator is in continuous dialogue with the learners.	A teacher tells the learners. A teacher lectures from the front. Gives answers according to a set curriculum. Mostly gives a monologue.

The nature of learning process

Learning is an active and social process where learners should learn to discover principles, concepts and facts for themselves. Reality is not something that we can discover because it does not pre-exist prior to our social invention of it. Reality is constructed by our own activities and that people, together as members of a society, invent the properties of the world. Individuals make meanings through interactions with each other and with the environment they live in.

            Knowledge is a product of humans and is socially and culturally constructed. Learning is a social process. It is not a process that only takes place inside our minds, nor is it a passive development of our behaviours that is shaped by external forces and that meaningful learning occurs when individuals are engaged in social activities. Through practical activity a child constructs meaning on an intrapersonal level i.e. making meaning himself, while speech connects this meaning with the interpersonal world shared by the child and her or his culture.

The dynamic interaction between Task, instructor and learner

The instructor and the learners are equally involved in learning from each other. The learning experience is both subjective and objective and requires that the instructor’s culture, values and background become an essential part of the interplay between learners and tasks in the shaping of meaning. Learners compare their version of the truth with that of the instructor and follow learners in order to get to a new, socially tested version of truth.

            The task or problem is thus the interface between the instructor and the learner. This creates a dynamic interaction between task, instructor and learner. The learners and instructors develop an awareness of each other’s viewpoints and look to own beliefs, standards and values that becomes subjective and objective both at the same time.

Collaboration between learners

            Learning is collaborative Therefore, the learners with different skills and backgrounds should collaborate in tasks and discussions in order to arrive at a shared understanding of the truth in a specific field.  Learners learn many things from their friends as they share their experiences and understandings. It defined as the distance between the actual developmental levels as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined though problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers, it differs from the fixed biological nature of Piaget’s stages of development

The importance of context

Through a process of ‘scaffolding’, a learner can be extended beyond the limitations of physical maturation to the extent that the development process lags behind the learning process. Vygotsky, the social constructivist paradigm views the context in which the learning occurs a central to the learning itself. Underlying the notion of the learners as an active processor is “the assumption that there is no one set of generalized learning laws with each law applying to all domains”.

            De contextualized knowledge does not give us the skills to apply our understandings to authentic tasks because, we are not working with the concept in the complex environment and experiencing the complex interrelationships in that environment that determines how and when the concept is used. One social constructivist notion is that of authentic or situated learning, where the student takes part in activities, which are directly relevant to the application of learning, and which take place within a culture similar to the applied setting.

Conclusion

Constructivism theory believes that appropriate environment should be created and given for the learners so that they can create lots of ideas themselves. The learners will get knowledge and construct meanings according to their inner aptitude and knowledge that they have. Therefore, as teacher, we should let the learners to construct the meaning themselves using their own knowledge and the learners try to assimilate with the new things and make the meaning. They try to understand and make interpretation of text in their own way and understand the intention of the speaker and impression of the hearer of the text. The learners can interpret and explain text in any way they like as they understand and can interpret text in different ways as everything can be falsified. Truth can be in the eyes of interprets so the all the time the truth can remain as it is. Therefore, I am very much impressed by this theory. As we know that knowledge is not transferable but it is self-regulated and durable which cannot be divided among the people. It is self-construct. The knowledge which is within our mind, try to compare with knew knowledge or experience and try to understand self in vary. Hence, learners will interpret text in their own way using their understanding, the interpretation of the students should be accepted. So multiple heads must be accepted not only the teacher’s interpretation is correct. Because of their personal experience, background and unique individual they understand the text or things differently and give their own interpretation. Therefore, the learners should be given an opportunity to create their own meaning.